Dovidka 3-ho Upravlinnia KDB URSR pro nedoliki u roboti shtabiv tsivil noi oborony obiektiv atomnoi energetiki respubliki, Derzhavnyi arkhiv sluzhby bezpeky Ukrainy (DA SBU), f. 65, spr. D'iachenko, , Opyt likvidatsii Chernobyl skoi katastrofy, 3940.Google Scholar, 35. Baranovs'ka, N., Chornobil's'ka trahediia iak argument perebudovi, in Perebudova: Zadum i rezul'taty v Ukrainy do10-richchia protoloshennia kursu na reformy (Kiev, 1996), 3845.Google Scholar. Spravka, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. For instance, Paul Josephson states in his history of the Soviet nuclear power program that Soviet planners never anticipated an accident of such a scale, and apparently they never accumulated the medicines and equipment needed for nuclear civil defense purposes, except perhaps for the elite in capital cities. Paul R. Josephson, RedAtom: Russia's Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today (Pittsburgh, 2005), 260. Krutskikh, D. A., Memuary (Moscow, 2001), 4046.Google Scholar, 73. Saunders, George (New York, 1979).Google Scholar, 19. Medvedev, The Legacy of Chernobyl, 54. Furthermore, they state that the maximum radiation in Pripiat was 14 microroentgens an hour on the morning of the 26thwhen in fact there were places in the city where radiation levels were hundreds of times higher. Pipes, Richard, Why the Soviet Union Thinks It Could Fight and Win a Nuclear War, Commentary Shcherbinoi, [operation at] energy blocks # 1 and 2 has been halted with a shut-down cooling of the reactors. [15] Background 60. Chernobyl was not a natural disaster; it was a man-made one. On the May 6 news conference, see 49. 1 (January 1988): 32.Google Scholar. 4-6, 3436. Boris Ivanov, Chernobyl', Voennye znaniia 40, no. Vozniak, V. Ibid., 53. D'iachenko, , Opyt likvidatsii Chernobylskoi katastrofy, 39.Google Scholar. PDF A Failure in Safe Operations - EPRI The plant managers decided to take advantage of this to conduct a safety test an experiment to see whether, if there was a failure in the external power grid immediately after shut down, the reactors generators (then spinning down) could produce sufficient power to control the reactor during the time it would take for the reactors emergency generators to cut in (around one minute). Radiological conditions in Kiev began deteriorating sharply on April 30. 23. Medvedev, , The Legacy of Chernobyl, 4952.Google Scholar. Cambridge Journals publishes over 250 peer-reviewed academic journals across a wide range of subject areas, in print and online. While the USSR's civil defense organization urged prompt and decisive measures to inform the population of the accident and move people out of harm's way, other Soviet institutions, such as the Communist Party and the KGB, feared the accident's threat to their legitimacy more than its implications for public health. 1, spr. 4, no. Stikhi, ocherki, rasskazy, otryvki iz romanov ipovestei, interv'iu (Kiev, 1988);Google Scholar Legasov, V. A., Iz segodniav zavtra: Mysli vslukh Chernobyl i bezopasnost (Moscow, 1996), 57.Google Scholar, 76. 5, 35-36 (reports to Ukraine CP on rumors about Chernobyl', May 1986). 21. 64. Spravka, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. 21. Political Fallout: Nuclear Weapons Testing and the Making of a Global 1, spr. 66. 27. Render date: 2023-03-04T05:38:26.289Z Ibid., 53. 60. 1. Tsentral'nyi Komitet Kompartii Ukrainy-Informatsiia, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. 35 years after Chernobyl's meltdown, the fallout of - Inverse Canadian expert Dr. David Marples's work The Soviet Impact of the Cher- nobyl Disaster 12 provides an excellent description of the explosion and its social consequences. This concern swelled into a major political controversy in the 1970s, when critics of detente such as Harvard historian Richard Pipes and Sovietologist Leon Gour charged that Soviet civil defense proved that the Kremlin was a dangerous, expansionist power fully willing to resort to nuclear aggression if it appeared advantageous. 1,32.Google Scholar, 54. Shoigu, S. K., Of MPVO k grazhdanskoi zashchite: Istoricheskii ocherk (Moscow, 1998);Google Scholar and Shcherbak, , Chernobyl', 400.Google Scholar, 57. See Kushnir, Valentina Shevchenko.. Engineering Failures: Chernobyl Disaster - Engineering Institute of Razmyshleniia, Voices from Chernobyl:The Oral History of a Nuclear Disaster, Atomic-Powered Communism: Nuclear Culture in the Postwar USSR, Atomnaia energiia i radiatsionnaia bezopasnost, Was There a Real Mineshaft Gap'? 2997, ark. Shcherbak, , Chernobyl', 397.Google Scholar, 38. Informatsiine povidomlennia KDB URSR do TsK KPU pro vybukh 4-ho enerhobloka Chornobyl's'koyi AES. Since the early 1950s, some Americans had argued that the USSR possessed a vast, well-resourced civil defense organization that was far more capable than its American counterpart. Smirnova, , Trevozhnye dni, 6;Google Scholar See 31. Gaidamak, V. A., Likvidatsiia posledstvii radioaktivnogo zarazheniia (Moscow, 1980), 4.Google Scholar, 26. This concern swelled into a major political controversy in the 1970s, when critics of detente such as Harvard historian Richard Pipes and Sovietologist Leon Gour charged that Soviet civil defense proved that the Kremlin was a dangerous, expansionist power fully willing to resort to nuclear aggression if it appeared advantageous. Marples, David R., TheSocial Impact of the Chernobyl Disaster (New York, 1988).CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 80. Chernobyl's effects went well beyond radiation, rippling through the social and political fabric of a deteriorating society. Gnatiuk, Neobkhodimosf MPVO-GO, 19. 4-6, 3436. Chernobyl: Chapter I. The site and accident sequence On the construction of the sarcophagus, see Baranovs'ka, Chornobyl's'ka trahediia, 207-39, and on state measures to provide housing and employment to evacuees, see ibid., 182-85. la., Atomnaia energiia i radiatsionnaia bezopasnost (Moscow, 1983), 14243.Google Scholar, 13. Chernobyl and the fall of the Soviet Union: Gorbachev's glasnost Access to the Jupiter plant is still restricted by the Ukrainian security services. CHERNOBYL SYMBOL OF SOVIET FAILURE. 3 (March 1988): 38. 26 kvitnia 1986r., DA SBU, f. 64, op. 48. Published online by Cambridge University Press: Stay informed with the latest commentary and analysis on international events from experts at the Lowy Institute and around the world. 63. Shcherbak, , Chernobyl, 399.Google ScholarPubMed, 47. 62. Readers learn that, This study focuses on nuclear tourism, which flourished a decade ago in the Exclusion Zone, a regimented area around the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant (Ukraine) established in 1986, where the largest, Cover; Half title; Series; Title; Copyright; Contents; List of Figures; List of Maps; List of Tables; Acknowledgments; Archives and Abbreviations; 1 Nature and Power in the Soviet North; 2, Stories of House and Home: Soviet Apartment Life during the Khrushchev Years, by Christine Varga-Harris, Ithaca NY, Cornell University Press, 2015, xvii + 289 pp., US$49.95 (hardback), ISBN, En 1904, Frederick Soddy, laureat du prix Nobel en 1921 pour ses recherches en radiochimie, speculait sur le fait que le decodage, puis le dechainement des forces prodigieuses de latome. The RBMK's large size and relatively high complexity increased its construction costs, but it enjoyed the advantage of decreased fuel costs because it could run on low-enriched uranium, thanks to its superior neutron economy. While many transnational histories of the nuclear arms race have been written, Kate Brown provides the first definitive account of the great plutonium disasters of the United States and the Soviet, Interestingly, voices from chernobyl the oral history of a nuclear disaster that you really wait for now is coming. Ivanov, , Chernobyl', Voennyeznaniia, no. Abstract. for this article. 64. See TsDAHO, f. 1, op. Gnatiuk, Iu., Neobkhodimost MPVO-GO: Podtverdilo vremia, Grazhdanskaiazashchita A general Time-Aware RL framework: Timeaware Q-Networks (TQN), which takes into account physical time intervals within a deep RL framework and shows that by capturing the underlying structures in the sequences with time irregularities from both aspects, TQNs significantly outperform DQN in four types of contexts with irregular time intervals. An ironic example of this appeared in a May 8,1986, circular for party propagandists stating explicitly that the population is being promptly and fully informed about the ongoing work at the power plant and other measures. The circular itself, however, instructs recipients to destroy after reading. Ob avarii na Chernobyl skoi AES i likvidatsii ee posledstvii, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. 2979,11.8-12 (report on Ukrainian citizens reactions to M. S. Gorbachev's May 14,1986, televised address). 25, spr. On the night of 25-26 April, there was an explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power station, in what was then the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, one of the 15 constituent republics of the. Slavic Review is an international interdisciplinary journal devoted to the study of eastern Europe, Russia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, past and present. 2-3 (report to CP Ukraine Central Committee on events at ChNPP, April 1986). The Real Chernobyl: Q&A With a Radiation Exposure Expert These sources however have the disadvantage of being intermittent, they cannot be relied upon to produce power at all times required. The negative sentiment towards nuclear energy was reinforced by the Fukushima accident, resulting in further decisions against nuclear programs. CHERNOBYL, U.S.S.R. -- When Reactor No. Medvedev, , The Legacy of Chernobyl, 49.Google Scholar, 55. An ironic example of this appeared in a May 8,1986, circular for party propagandists stating explicitly that the population is being promptly and fully informed about the ongoing work at the power plant and other measures. The circular itself, however, instructs recipients to destroy after reading. Ob avarii na Chernobyl skoi AES i likvidatsii ee posledstvii, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. It affected large areas of the former Soviet Union and even parts of western Europe. These issues are of vital importance to Australia. The most significant fallout occurred across western Soviet Russia, Belarus and Ukraine; and the nearby settlements of Chornobyl and Pripyat (Clark and Smith, 1988). Political Fallout: The Failure of Emergency Management at Chernobyl' Authors: Edward Geist Abstract Ever since the accident that destroyed unit 4 of the Chernobyl' Nuclear Power Plant on April. Brown, Kate, Plutopia:Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (Oxford, 2013).Google Scholar For an account based on rumors about the disasters that circulated prior to Chernobyl', see The fallout from Chernobyl is both vast and ongoing. For more information, visit http://journals.cambridge.org. Bomb Shelters in the USSR, 1945-1962, Journal of Cold War Studies 3844 (report on shutdowns in Ukrainian nuclear energy sector, March 1983). Chernobyl: the continuing political consequences of a nuclear accident 1. Ivanov, Chernobyl', Voennyeznaniia, no. Vypiska iz Norm radiatsionnoi bezopasnosti NRB-76,' TsDAHO, f. 1, op. A., Chernobylskaiakatastrofa: Dvadtsat letspustia (Moscow, 2006).Google Scholar For accounts touching on the role of civil defense during the disaster penned by the plant's assistant safety officer, see 1 (unmarked document, apparently from April 26,1986, outlining radiation protection norms). A., Chernobylskaiakatastrofa: Dvadtsat letspustia (Moscow, 2006).Google Scholar For accounts touching on the role of civil defense during the disaster penned by the plant's assistant safety officer, see Chernobyl power supply cut but IAEA says no imminent safety threat Smirnova, A. S., ed., Trevozhnye dni i nochi Chernobylia: Sbornik rasskazov ivospominanii (Kiev, 2003), 34.Google Scholar. Razmyshleniia, Voices from Chernobyl:The Oral History of a Nuclear Disaster, Atomic-Powered Communism: Nuclear Culture in the Postwar USSR, Atomnaia energiia i radiatsionnaia bezopasnost, Was There a Real Mineshaft Gap'? The exact sequence of events that unfolded in the days following the disaster and the forces that shaped it have, however, remained obscure. 77. Has data issue: true l, torn (t.) 24, ark. 58. 25, spr. Chernobyl: Chapter IX. Lessons learnt - Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) D'iachenko, , Opyt likvidatsii Chernobyl skoi katastrofy, 3940.Google Scholar, 35. Lowy Institute. 2-3 (KGB report on conditions around ChNPP, April 26,1986); Povidomlennia KDB URSR do KDB SRSR pro vybukh 4-ho enerhobloka Chornobyl's'koi AES. The circumstances of Chernobyl reinforced that the Soviet culture of secrecy was at best regressive and at worst disastrous. Drawing on declassified archival documents from Ukrainian archives and memoir literature, I explore the political and institutional logic that prevented the USSR from acting appropriately to protect citizens from the consequences of the nuclear accident. See, for instance, Shcherbak, Chernobyl'. The recent mini-series on the Chernobyl nuclear accident is a reminder that after 33 years the consequences of the accident are still very much with us. Chernobyl and its Political Implications - Stanford University 2995,11.12-13 (report to Ukrainian CP Central Committee on Chernobyl liquidation effort, June 12,1986). Voprosy i otvety (Moscow, 1989), 120.Google Scholar, 46. 45. Gorbachev had already begun speaking of glasnost the need for greater openness and transparency in government institutions and activities. On the May 6 news conference, see See Obstanovka i meropriiatia po likvidatsii posledstvii avarii na Chernobyl skoi AES po sostoianiiu na 12 iiunia 1986 goda, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. Boris Ivanov, Chernobyl', Voennye znaniia 40, no. JRC news - EU Science Hub 2014. 41. On the history of Soviet civil defense, see For a recent English-language account of these disasters, see 34-38 (circular on Chernobyl accident for party propagandists, May 8,1986). Valentina Shevchenko has made contradictory statements to this effect. Gessen, Keith (Champaign, 2005).Google Scholar, 7. For an overview of Soviet media accounts of the disaster in 1986-87, see On the organizational history of the Soviet nuclear power sector prior to Chernobyl', see For a western analysis of the interplay between antinuclear and anti-Soviet popular sentiments following Chernobyl', see Chernobyl Accident - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics Last April, Viacheslav Grishin, president of the Chernobyl Leaguea Kiev-based organization that claims to represent the liquidatorssaid 15,000 liquidators had died and 50,000 were handicapped. 1 February 2023. Hurricane Katrina: Remembering the Federal Failures Facing increasing river flood risk in Europe: adaptation measures can save lives and billions of euro. Chernobyl: People Who Played a Crucial Role in the World's Worst For an account of Soviet propaganda extolling nuclear power, see 49. Not long after midnight on April 26, 1986, the world's worst nuclear power accident began. As part of the test (and in violation of safety rules) a number of the reactors safety systems were disabled. Illesh, A. V. and Pral'nikov, A. E., Reportazh iz Chernobylia: Zapiski ochevidtsev.Kommentarii. Ivanov, Boris, Chernobyl', Voennye znaniia Blog november 2025 calendar Uncategorized political fallout the failure of emergency management at chernobyl. Political Fallout: The Failure of Emergency Management https://doi.org/10.5612/slavicreview.74.1.104, Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. Has data issue: true 52-56 (Ukrainian KGB report to CPSU Central Committee, April 28,1986). 2 (March/April 2011): 1929.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. While some renewables proponents argue that baseload power is no longer necessary, it is notable that in the UK, which is committed to achieve zero carbon emissions by 2050, nuclear energy is expected to supply 31% of electricity demand then. Before the March 1979 accident, the Federal Government largely ignored emergency planning around . Political Fallout is the story of one of the first human-driven, truly global environmental crisesradioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing during the Cold Warand the international response. Rossiter, Evelyn (New York, 1991), 1819.Google Scholar, 10. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Chernobyl's role in fall of the USSR | History Blog Many of these journals are the leading academic publications in their fields and together they form one of the most valuable and comprehensive bodies of research available today. Karpan, N. V., Chernobyl: Mest mirnogo atoma (Kiev, 2005);Google Scholar and CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 8. Chernobyl Accident - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics See, for example, Medvedev, , The Legacy of Chernobyl, 4952.Google Scholar. CHERNOBYL SYMBOL OF SOVIET FAILURE - The Washington Post Medvedev, , The Truth about Chernobyl, 8083.Google Scholar, 34. Smirnova, , Trevozhnye dni, 6;Google Scholar 2337, ark. 55, no. Unthinkably, the core of the plant's reactor No. The rem measurement is the product of the exposed dose in roentgens and a weighting factor accounting for the effectiveness of the type of radiation to cause biological damage. Most accounts of the disaster possess an anecdotal or journalistic character, which often effectively captures individual experiences but proves less successful at delineating the accident's institutional aspects or its precise chronology. In December 1986, Pikalov received the USSR's highest military award, the Hero of the Soviet Union, for his service at Chernobyl'. Valentina Shevchenko has made contradictory statements to this effect. Potter, William and Kerner, Lucy, The Soviet Military's Performance at Chernobyl, Soviet Studies A major event of the 20th century had occurred. Pipes, Richard, Why the Soviet Union Thinks It Could Fight and Win a Nuclear War, Commentary Says Toll May Pass 2,000, New York Times, April 30,1986, A10. Content may require purchase if you do not have access. hasContentIssue true, Copyright Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies. 68. l, torn (t.) 24, ark. Voprosy i otvety, Opyt likvidatsii Chernobylskoi katastrofy, Iz segodniav zavtra: Mysli vslukh Chernobyl i bezopasnost, Chornobil's'ka trahediia iak argument perebudovi, Perebudova: Zadum i rezul'taty v Ukrainy do10-richchia protoloshennia kursu na reformy, At Moscow News Session: Brief and Not to Point, TheSocial Impact of the Chernobyl Disaster. See, for instance, Shcherbak, Chernobyl'. 5, 35-36 (reports to Ukraine CP on rumors about Chernobyl', May 1986). The severity and long persistence of radioactive contamination challenges the affected communities in many ways. Russian forces seize Chernobyl nuclear power plant - BBC News File photo - A wolf stands in a field in the 18 mile exclusion zone around the . Reflecting growing popular disillusionment with the Soviet project, glasnost-era Soviet writers often faulted the Soviet system for endangering its citizens with an intrinsically dangerous technology. In various ways the accident contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union. The accident at Chernobyl was the product of a lack of safety culture. It has Expand 1 When safe enough is not good enough: Organizing safety at Chernobyl Sonja D. Schmid Art 2011 Above all, when it comes to emergency preparedness there are agencies that work together to ensure a plan is place when the time comes. restored republic feb 28 2021. how to become a sommelier as a hobby. Summits are too often harshly judged on what they deliver now rather than the agenda set for the future. Some Russian-language scholarship about Soviet civil defense at Chernobyl argues that the organization's failures during the disaster resulted from a disproportionate emphasis on planning for wartime hazards and that it made major reforms in light of its experiences. 43, no. 3,39. Until the anthropological shock (Beck, 1987) of the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster, Viktor was doing national service as a, Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences. 81. com.ua/articles/2011/04/25/36971/ (last accessed November 10, 2014). The United States Environmental Protection Agency and other federal agencies are constantly preparing for disastrous events, including event involving nuclear and radiological materials. 48. 3. Shcherbak, , Chernobyl, 399.Google ScholarPubMed, 47. At around 01:23 am on that day, reactor number 4 at the Chernobyl plant exploded. Vladimirov, V. et al., Of MPVO k grazhdanskoi zashchite: Stranitsy iz istorii MPVOGO-PSChS sub'ektov Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow, 2004).Google Scholar Furthermore, several Russian scholars have touched on the role of Soviet civil defense at Chernobyl', particularly writer and Chernobyl liquidator Anatolii D'iachenko. The Interpreter features in-depth analysis & expert commentary on the latest international events, published daily by the Lowy Institute, Copyright 2023 On April 26, 1986, a sudden surge of power during a reactor systems test destroyed Unit 4 of the nuclear power station at Chernobyl, Ukraine, in the former Soviet Union. la., Ignatenko, E. I., Kovalenko, A. P., and Troitskii, S. N., Chernobyl': Sobytiia i uroki. Shcherbak, , Chernobyl', 400.Google Scholar, 52. Povidomlennia UKDB URSR po m. Kyievu ta Kyivs'kii oblasti do KDB SRSR ta KDB SRSR pro vybukh 4-ho enerhobloka Chornobyl's'koyi AES. 24. The abuse potential of the latter two substances (aprofen can induce a hallucinogenic delirium) may have discouraged the Soviet government from issuing the complete kits to citizens following the Chernobyl' accident, and extant accounts suggest that civil defense distributed only the potassium iodide tablets. Ivanov, , Chernobyl', Voennyeznaniia, no. Krutskikh, , Memuary, 410.Google Scholar, 75. Render date: 2023-03-04T05:38:26.289Z For one such scholarly account, see 29. Medvedev, , The Truth about Chernobyl, 26.Google Scholar, 12. 2 (March/April 2011): 1929.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. The Chernobyl necklace: the psychosocial experiences of female A., Opyt likvidatsii posledstviiChernobylskoi katastrofy (Moscow, 2004);Google Scholar and This reactor design, known in Russian as reaktor bol'shoi moshchnosti kanal'nyi (high-power channel-type reactor, RBMK), descended from Soviet plutonium-production reactor designs and consists of stainless steel tubes containing uranium fuel elements in which the light-water coolant boils, surrounded by graphite blocks that serve as a neutron moderator. In early 1983, the ministry noted the problems of reliability and safety at nuclear power plants but evaluated the attendant costs entirely in terms of the economic losses resulting from repair shutdowns, not possible accident hazards. Use flashlights, never candles. On the history of Soviet civil defense, see Taubman, Phillip, At Moscow News Session: Brief and Not to Point, New York Times, May 7, 1986, A19.Google Scholar For the text of Gorbachev's May 14 address, see Vystuplenie M. S. Gorbacheva po sovetskomu televideniiu, Pravda, May 15,1986,1. 39, no. 4, no. Gorbachev, M. S., Sobranie sochinenii, vol. political fallout the failure of emergency management at chernobyl 28. According to Gnatiuk, the civil defense staff of the RSFSR carried out exercises at all nuclear power stations in Russia prior to the Chernobyl disaster. Illesh, A. V. and Pral'nikov, A. E., Reportazh iz Chernobylia: Zapiski ochevidtsev.Kommentarii. Potter, William and Kerner, Lucy, The Soviet Military's Performance at Chernobyl, Soviet Studies hasContentIssue true, Copyright Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies. The 1986 accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine, then part of the former Soviet Union, is the only accident in the history of commercial nuclear power to cause fatalities from radiation. More broadly, the Chernobyl accident has had a major impact on public and political attitudes towards the safety of nuclear energy. A further factor which weakened the Soviet regime was the enormous economic cost of dealing with the effects of the accident. 44. The Truth About Chernobyl by Grigori Medvedev, the top Soviet physicist who was originally commissioned to investigate the tragedy, is at long last available to reveal the long-suppressed, By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our. 2 (Summer 1996): 297324. For the last five weeks, HBO's smash-hit drama Chernobyl has been reliving the disaster at the . 79. Medvedev, Grigori, The Truth about Chernobyl, trans. This larger enclosure aims to enable the removal of both the sarcophagus and the reactor debris while containing the radioactive materials inside. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. For terms and use, please refer to our Terms and Conditions Political Fallout: The Failure of Emergency Management at Chernobyl Chernobyl may have actually been a boon for wildlife. Its a big challenge to manage the ambition for nuclear-powered subs and still juggle other crucial defence decisions. In 1987, the USSR tried and convicted several individuals for the accident using this argument. 50. For a recent English-language account of these disasters, see Research Guides: HIS 100 - Perspectives in History: Chernobyl Medvedev, Zhores A., Nuclear Disaster in the Urals, trans. Watch: East Palestine Officials Hold Meeting With Frustrated Residents Feature Flags: { list of texas electric utilities political fallout the failure of emergency management at chernobyl 25, spr. Shcherbak, Iurii Nikolaevich, Chernobyl (Moscow, 1991), 395401. 40, no. In an attempt to contain the fallout, on May 14, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev ordered the dispatch of hundreds of thousands of people, including firefighters, military reservists and miners,. Gorbachev touted the term heavily in his address to the Twenty-Seventh Party Congress, in February 1986, as a critical component of socialist democratism. Voprosy i otvety, Opyt likvidatsii Chernobylskoi katastrofy, Iz segodniav zavtra: Mysli vslukh Chernobyl i bezopasnost, Chornobil's'ka trahediia iak argument perebudovi, Perebudova: Zadum i rezul'taty v Ukrainy do10-richchia protoloshennia kursu na reformy, At Moscow News Session: Brief and Not to Point, TheSocial Impact of the Chernobyl Disaster.
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